APA citation: McClelland, N. C. (2010). Encyclopedia of reincarnation and karma. McFarland & Company.
What the Book is About
Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma is not a conventional monograph advancing a single philosophical thesis; rather, it is a vast compendium that attempts to map, categorize, and critically present the global history of ideas surrounding rebirth, transmigration, and karmic causation. Emerging from what began as a modest glossary for students, the work expands into an encyclopedic survey spanning religious traditions, philosophical systems, anthropological observations, psychological theories, and modern esoteric movements.
The author’s fundamental concern is not merely to explain reincarnation and karma, but to demonstrate the profound diversity—and often irreconcilable differences—embedded within these concepts across cultures and historical periods. Rather than presenting a unified doctrine, the encyclopedia deliberately foregrounds fragmentation: it shows that what is commonly treated as a single idea (“reincarnation”) is in fact a cluster of related but distinct notions, each with its own metaphysical assumptions, ethical implications, and psychological interpretations.
This plurality is evident from the outset in the terminological analysis. Words such as “rebirth,” “reincarnation,” “transmigration,” and “metempsychosis” are not treated as interchangeable labels but as indicators of subtly different models of post-mortem continuity. In particular, the distinction between Buddhist “rebirth” (which denies a permanent soul) and Hindu “reincarnation” (which presupposes a persisting आत्मन् or soul) becomes foundational to the book’s conceptual architecture.
The work situates these doctrines within a broad civilizational frame. While South and East Asian traditions provide the most systematic elaborations of karma and rebirth, the encyclopedia traces parallel or analogous ideas in ancient Greek philosophy, Celtic traditions, Jewish mysticism, early Christian speculation, African belief systems, and modern Western esotericism. This comparative approach destabilizes any attempt to localize reincarnation within a single religious tradition, showing instead that it functions as a recurring human response to questions of justice, identity, and continuity beyond death.
At the same time, the book underscores a striking asymmetry: whereas belief in rebirth appears globally distributed, the doctrine of karma achieves its most elaborate and philosophically rigorous development in the Indian context. Karma, understood as a moral law governing the continuity of experience across lifetimes, becomes the organizing principle that links metaphysics to ethics. It provides a framework through which suffering, inequality, and moral responsibility are interpreted not as arbitrary phenomena but as consequences embedded within a larger causal order.
Yet the encyclopedia does not present karma uncritically. It repeatedly returns to tensions internal to the doctrine: its potential conflict with monotheistic theologies, its vulnerability to accusations of “blaming the victim,” and the conceptual difficulty of maintaining moral continuity without a stable self (as in Buddhist thought). In this sense, the work is not doctrinal but diagnostic—it exposes the philosophical pressures exerted on any system that attempts to reconcile continuity of identity with transformation across lifetimes.
Another major dimension of the book is its engagement with modernity. The encyclopedia tracks the resurgence of reincarnation beliefs in Western contexts, particularly from the late nineteenth century onward, where they appear in Theosophy, spiritualism, psychotherapy, and popular culture. This revival is interpreted partly as a response to the decline of traditional doctrines such as bodily resurrection and eternal damnation. Reincarnation offers, for many, a more psychologically and ethically plausible model of post-mortem existence—one that preserves continuity without requiring miraculous intervention or eternal punishment.
At the same time, the modern appropriation of these ideas leads to further fragmentation. The book documents a proliferation of interpretations ranging from rigorous philosophical positions to highly speculative or even fantastical claims—past-life regression, extraterrestrial reincarnation narratives, and hybrid religious systems. This proliferation reinforces the author’s central thesis: that there is no single, authoritative account of reincarnation or karma, but rather a contested field of meanings shaped by cultural, historical, and psychological factors.
Structurally, the encyclopedia operates through a dense network of entries—approximately 1,200 in total—covering individuals, doctrines, practices, and conceptual problems. These entries collectively form a kind of intellectual cartography, mapping not only what has been thought about reincarnation and karma, but how those thoughts intersect, diverge, and evolve over time.
In this way, the book resists the temptation to synthesize its material into a unified theory. Instead, it offers something more demanding: a panoramic view of a domain in which coherence is elusive, and where the very attempt to define “reincarnation” or “karma” reveals the limits of conceptual generalization. The reader is thus confronted not with answers, but with the complexity of the questions themselves—questions concerning identity, causality, moral responsibility, and the persistence (or dissolution) of the self across the boundary of death.
Intellectual Framework
The intellectual framework of the encyclopedia is implicitly comparative, philological, and critical rather than systematic or doctrinal. Its organizing principle is not a single metaphysical commitment but a methodological stance: that reincarnation and karma must be understood as historically contingent constructs, whose meanings shift across linguistic, cultural, and philosophical contexts.
At the core of this framework lies a semantic analysis of key terms. The author treats language not as a neutral medium but as a decisive factor in shaping conceptual understanding. The distinction between “rebirth” and “reincarnation,” for instance, is not merely terminological but ontological. In Buddhist contexts, “rebirth” refers to a process without a persisting soul, mediated instead by causal continuity (often expressed through consciousness or a “rebirth factor”). In Hindu and Jain contexts, by contrast, reincarnation presupposes an enduring self that migrates from one body to another.
This linguistic sensitivity extends to the treatment of non-Western concepts such as karma, dharma, and samsara. Rather than imposing Western categories onto these terms, the encyclopedia attempts to preserve their semantic range while situating them within broader comparative frameworks. The result is a layered analysis in which similar terms across traditions are shown to conceal deep structural differences.
A second pillar of the framework is historical pluralism. The book rejects any attempt to trace a single origin or linear development of reincarnation beliefs. Instead, it presents a multiplicity of independent or semi-independent traditions in which analogous ideas emerge under different conditions. This pluralism is not merely descriptive; it functions as a critique of reductionist explanations that seek to explain reincarnation as either a universal intuition or a diffusion from a single cultural source.
Closely related to this is the encyclopedia’s engagement with cross-cultural comparison. By juxtaposing Indian, Greek, African, and modern Western perspectives, the work reveals both convergences and divergences. For example, while many cultures posit some form of post-mortem continuity, the mechanisms and metaphysical assumptions underlying that continuity vary widely—from soul transmigration to partial ancestral return to impersonal causal processes.
A third dimension of the framework is philosophical analysis. The encyclopedia repeatedly raises questions about personal identity, moral responsibility, and causal continuity. How can a person be held accountable for actions performed in a previous life if there is no memory of those actions? What constitutes the “same” individual across multiple incarnations? How does karma operate in the absence of a permanent self? These questions are not resolved but are instead presented as enduring problems that any theory of reincarnation must confront.
Finally, the work incorporates a critical perspective on modern reinterpretations of reincarnation and karma. It examines how these concepts are adapted, simplified, or transformed in contemporary contexts, often losing their original philosophical depth. At the same time, it acknowledges the psychological and existential appeal of these ideas in a secularizing world, where traditional religious frameworks are increasingly questioned.
In sum, the intellectual framework of the encyclopedia is one of disciplined openness: it seeks to document and analyze without prematurely resolving the tensions inherent in its subject matter. Its guiding assumption is that reincarnation and karma are not fixed doctrines but evolving conceptual fields, whose complexity can only be appreciated through careful comparative and historical study.
Introduction (Detailed Exposition)
The introduction functions as both a conceptual orientation and a methodological manifesto. It begins by challenging the reader’s likely assumption that reincarnation and karma are primarily associated with Indian religions. While acknowledging this association, the text immediately broadens the scope, emphasizing the presence of analogous ideas in a wide range of cultural contexts, from ancient Greece to modern Western societies.
From this opening move, the introduction establishes its central theme: the radical diversity of beliefs concerning rebirth and karmic causation. This diversity is not treated as a peripheral complication but as the defining feature of the subject. The author explicitly states that the purpose of the encyclopedia is to reveal “how little real agreement there is” across the vast body of literature on these topics.
A significant portion of the introduction is devoted to terminological clarification. The four principal terms—rebirth, reincarnation, transmigration, and metempsychosis—are analyzed in detail, with attention to their historical usage and conceptual implications. This analysis serves a dual purpose: it prevents conceptual confusion and highlights the ways in which language encodes metaphysical assumptions.
Particularly important is the distinction between Buddhist and non-Buddhist uses of these terms. In Buddhism, the rejection of a permanent soul necessitates a different understanding of rebirth, one that avoids the notion of a stable entity migrating between bodies. This leads to the introduction of neutral terms such as “rebirth factor” to describe the continuity of experience without implying a persisting self.
The introduction also addresses the concept of karma, presenting it as both central and problematic. While often defined as a moral law governing actions and their consequences across lifetimes, karma is shown to vary significantly in its interpretation and application. The text raises critical questions about its compatibility with other religious doctrines, its ethical implications, and its explanatory power.
Another key theme is the modern resurgence of interest in reincarnation and karma. Drawing on survey data, the introduction notes a significant level of belief in these concepts in contemporary Western societies, particularly among younger populations. This resurgence is interpreted in part as a response to dissatisfaction with traditional doctrines such as resurrection and eternal punishment.
However, the introduction is careful to distinguish between scholarly and popular treatments of the subject. It warns against the tendency to oversimplify or homogenize complex doctrines, emphasizing the need for careful analysis and critical evaluation. The proliferation of popular literature on past lives, karma, and related topics is presented as both a sign of interest and a source of confusion.
Structurally, the introduction prepares the reader for the encyclopedic format of the work. It explains the organization of entries, the use of cross-references, and the conventions adopted for transliteration and terminology. This methodological transparency reinforces the scholarly orientation of the book while also acknowledging the challenges posed by its subject matter.
In its overall movement, the introduction performs a crucial function: it dismantles the illusion of simplicity surrounding reincarnation and karma, replacing it with a recognition of complexity, diversity, and unresolved tension. It invites the reader not to seek definitive answers, but to engage with a field of inquiry that resists closure and demands sustained intellectual attention.
The Encyclopedia (Structure and Internal Logic of the Entries)
What follows in the main body of Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma is not a linear argument but a sprawling, alphabetically organized field of conceptual nodes. The section titled “The Encyclopedia” constitutes the core of the work, where the author’s methodological commitments—comparative breadth, semantic precision, and critical neutrality—are enacted through a dense constellation of entries.
The encyclopedic form itself is philosophically significant. Rather than imposing a synthetic theory of reincarnation and karma, the author deliberately fragments the subject into discrete yet interconnected units. Each entry functions as a local exposition, but collectively they generate a network of meanings that the reader must actively navigate. The result is not a closed system but an open architecture of thought, where understanding emerges through cross-reference and accumulation rather than linear progression.
The entries fall into several broad but overlapping categories. One major category consists of conceptual entries—terms such as “rebirth,” “transmigration,” “karma,” “soul,” “mind,” and “consciousness.” These entries establish the conceptual grammar of the field. They do not merely define terms but trace their semantic evolution, their variations across traditions, and the philosophical problems they entail. For instance, the distinction between “soul” and “mind” is shown to be historically contingent and philosophically fraught, particularly in contexts where one survives death and the other does not.
Another category comprises doctrinal and religious entries. These include treatments of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and various Western religious movements, each examined in terms of how they conceptualize rebirth and karma. The entries do not attempt to harmonize these traditions; instead, they emphasize their divergences. Buddhism’s rejection of a permanent self, for example, is placed in sharp contrast with the soul-based frameworks of Hindu and Jain thought. This comparative tension is not resolved but sustained, reinforcing the encyclopedia’s commitment to pluralism.
A third category includes historical and biographical entries. These range from ancient philosophers and religious figures to modern proponents and critics of reincarnation. Through these entries, the encyclopedia traces the transmission and transformation of ideas across time. Figures such as Kabbalists, Christian theologians, and modern psychical researchers are situated within broader intellectual currents, showing how reincarnation has been reinterpreted in different historical contexts.
Closely related to this is a category of cultural and anthropological entries. These explore beliefs about rebirth in various societies, including African, Amerindian, and Australian traditions. Particularly noteworthy is the nuanced treatment of what might superficially be labeled “reincarnation” in these contexts. In many African traditions, for example, what appears to be reincarnation is in fact a form of partial or temporary ancestral return, rather than the full migration of a soul from one body to another. This distinction complicates any attempt to universalize the concept of reincarnation.
Another significant group of entries addresses psychological and parapsychological phenomena. These include topics such as past-life memories, hypnotic regression, and altered states of consciousness. The encyclopedia presents these phenomena with a cautious neutrality, neither endorsing nor dismissing them outright. Instead, it situates them within a broader context of inquiry, highlighting both their evidential claims and their methodological challenges.
Finally, there are entries devoted to arguments—both for and against reincarnation and karma. These entries are among the most philosophically rigorous in the work. They include logical critiques, empirical considerations, and ethical objections, as well as defenses based on metaphysical reasoning, experiential claims, and cross-cultural consistency. The inclusion of these arguments underscores the encyclopedia’s refusal to adopt a purely descriptive stance; it engages actively with the intellectual viability of the doctrines it surveys.
What unifies this diverse material is a consistent attention to cross-referencing. Entries are interlinked through a system of internal references, encouraging the reader to move laterally through the text. This structure mirrors the conceptual complexity of the subject itself: no single entry is self-sufficient, and understanding emerges only through the interplay of multiple perspectives.
The cumulative effect of this structure is epistemological rather than doctrinal. The encyclopedia does not tell the reader what reincarnation and karma “are”; instead, it shows how they have been understood, contested, and transformed. The reader is thus placed in a position analogous to that of a researcher, assembling a coherent picture from a multiplicity of partial and sometimes conflicting accounts.
Representative Entry Analysis: Conceptual and Cultural Illustrations
To understand the internal functioning of the encyclopedia more concretely, it is useful to examine the character of individual entries and the kinds of insights they generate.
One recurring theme is the instability of the concept of the self. In Buddhist contexts, the denial of a permanent self (anatman) creates a fundamental tension: if there is no enduring entity, what exactly is reborn? The encyclopedia addresses this by introducing the idea of a “rebirth factor,” a neutral term that avoids the implications of a soul while preserving causal continuity. This conceptual maneuver highlights a broader philosophical problem: how to maintain continuity without identity.
In contrast, many Western and Indian traditions assume a more stable notion of the self. Here, reincarnation involves the migration of a soul or equivalent entity across bodies. However, even within these traditions, significant variations arise. Some systems allow for transmigration between species, while others restrict rebirth to human forms. These differences reflect deeper assumptions about the nature of consciousness, morality, and the hierarchy of beings.
The encyclopedia also illustrates how cultural context shapes the interpretation of rebirth. In many African traditions, as noted earlier, the idea of reincarnation does not involve a complete transfer of identity. Instead, aspects of an ancestor’s personality or essence may manifest in a descendant, while the ancestor continues to exist in a separate realm. This model challenges the binary opposition between life and afterlife, suggesting a more fluid and distributed conception of existence.
Another important theme is the relationship between reincarnation and moral order. In traditions that incorporate karma, rebirth is not a random process but a morally structured one. Actions in one life influence the conditions of future lives, creating a continuity of responsibility. However, this raises difficult ethical questions. If suffering is the result of past actions, does this justify or excuse injustice in the present? The encyclopedia does not resolve this tension but presents it as an inherent problem within karmic theory.
The entries also reveal the adaptability of reincarnation as an idea. In modern Western contexts, it is often detached from its traditional religious frameworks and reinterpreted in psychological or quasi-scientific terms. Concepts such as past-life regression and the “A-field” (a modern reinterpretation of the akashic record) exemplify this shift. These reinterpretations attempt to render reincarnation compatible with contemporary scientific sensibilities, but they also introduce new conceptual ambiguities.
At the same time, the encyclopedia documents more speculative or syncretic systems, such as those combining reincarnation with extraterrestrial narratives. These entries might appear marginal, but they serve an important function: they demonstrate the extent to which the idea of reincarnation can be integrated into radically different worldviews. This reinforces the book’s central claim that reincarnation is not a single doctrine but a flexible conceptual framework.
Through these representative entries, a pattern becomes clear. The encyclopedia is less concerned with establishing the truth of reincarnation or karma than with mapping the range of ways in which these ideas have been conceived. It reveals a landscape marked by diversity, tension, and ongoing reinterpretation.
Key Theses of the Book
Although the encyclopedia avoids explicit systematization, several underlying theses emerge from its cumulative presentation.
The first is that reincarnation and karma are not unified doctrines but heterogeneous conceptual fields. Any attempt to define them in a single, universally applicable way inevitably obscures important differences. The diversity of terms, interpretations, and practices is not accidental but intrinsic to the subject.
The second thesis is that language plays a निर्णायक role in shaping metaphysical concepts. Terms such as “rebirth,” “reincarnation,” and “transmigration” are not neutral labels but carriers of specific assumptions. Understanding these concepts requires careful attention to their linguistic and cultural contexts.
A third thesis concerns the relationship between continuity and identity. All theories of reincarnation must address the problem of what persists across lifetimes. Whether this is conceived as a soul, a stream of consciousness, or a set of causal conditions, the issue of personal identity remains central and unresolved.
A fourth thesis is that karma represents an attempt to integrate metaphysics with ethics. It provides a framework for understanding moral causation across lifetimes, but it also generates significant philosophical and ethical tensions. These tensions are not peripheral but central to the doctrine.
Finally, the book suggests that the modern resurgence of interest in reincarnation reflects broader cultural shifts. As traditional religious frameworks lose their authority, individuals seek alternative models of meaning and continuity. Reincarnation, in its various forms, offers one such model, but its very adaptability ensures that it remains conceptually unstable.
Methodology Analysis
The methodology of the encyclopedia is characterized by a deliberate refusal to reduce complexity. It combines elements of comparative religion, historical analysis, philology, and philosophical inquiry, but it does not subordinate these approaches to a single theoretical framework.
One of its strengths lies in its empirical breadth. The author draws on a wide range of sources, from ancient texts to modern surveys, creating a comprehensive overview of the subject. This breadth allows for a nuanced understanding of how reincarnation and karma function in different contexts.
At the same time, the methodology is critically reflexive. The author is aware of the limitations of his approach and the potential for bias or oversimplification. This awareness is reflected in the careful qualification of terms and the acknowledgment of unresolved issues.
However, the encyclopedic format also imposes certain constraints. The fragmentation of material into discrete entries can make it difficult to perceive overarching patterns. While cross-referencing mitigates this to some extent, the burden of synthesis is largely placed on the reader.
Another methodological challenge arises from the inclusion of both scholarly and popular sources. While this inclusivity reflects the real diversity of the field, it also raises questions about standards of evidence and interpretation. The encyclopedia addresses this by maintaining a neutral tone, but the tension between rigor and inclusivity remains.
Despite these challenges, the methodology is well suited to the subject. By resisting premature synthesis, the encyclopedia preserves the complexity and ambiguity of reincarnation and karma, allowing them to be studied as dynamic and evolving phenomena.
Quotes and Citation
“It is the purpose of this encyclopedia to demonstrate just how complex the subjects of reincarnation and karma are and how little real agreement there is on them…”
“Each term refers to a slightly different re-embodiment process… resulting in considerable overlap in meaning…”
“In Buddhism… the term rebirth is used only in a specifically Buddhist context, and… is not regarded as being synonymous with reincarnation.”
“It was only in India that a full scale karmic concept evolved…”
“Many Americans and Europeans actually adopt reincarnation and karma… to augment their more traditional… beliefs.”
Closing Comments
The encyclopedia ultimately functions less as a repository of answers than as a map of unresolved questions. It reveals reincarnation and karma not as settled doctrines but as sites of ongoing negotiation between metaphysics, ethics, culture, and psychology. Its greatest strength lies in its refusal to simplify—a refusal that compels the reader to confront the full complexity of ideas that are often treated as self-evident.
In doing so, the work occupies a distinctive position within the study of religion and philosophy. It does not offer a theory to be accepted or rejected, but a terrain to be explored—one in which clarity is achieved not through reduction, but through sustained engagement with multiplicity and tension.