crusades
Islamic Civilization and Western Modernity The argument that Western modernity was decisively shaped by Islamic civilization, including Toledo translations, Crusades, Arabic numerals, optics, and medicine
islamic-civilizationwestern-modernitytoledo-translationscrusadesarabic-numeralsibn-sinaibn-rushd
Islamic-West Encounters and the Crusades The Crusades as civilizational encounter between Christendom and Islam, including the formation of Western identity through opposition crusadesurban-iisaladinconstantinople-1453medieval-christendomwestern-identity